Artificial Intelligence — Complete Course Notes (BCA 7th Sem)

Comprehensive master lecture notes covering state space search, A* heuristic algorithms, Minimax, First Order Logic, Neural Networks, and NLP.

Artificial Intelligence · CACS401 · Semester 7

Curriculum

Unit 4•Unit 4 of 4

Unit 4: 3. Game Playing: Minimax and Alpha-Beta Pruning

In a two-player zero-sum game (e.g., Chess, Tic-Tac-Toe), MAX aims for the highest score while MIN aims to minimize MAX's score.

α (Alpha): The best (highest) value that MAX can guarantee at or above the current level.
β (Beta): The best (lowest) value that MIN can guarantee at or above the current level.
Pruning Condition: Prune remaining children of the node whenever α ≥ β. Alpha-Beta pruning achieves an optimal branching factor reduction from O(b^m) to O(b^m/2).

Which of the following is an invalid variable name in C? (a) _salary (b) 1st_rank (c) total_sum (d) age2objective · 1 marks
What is the return type of the `malloc()` function in C? (a) `int*` (b) `char*` (c) `void*` (d) `float*`objective · 1 marks
Explain the difference between call by value and call by reference in C with suitable code snippets.short · 5 marks
What is recursion? Write a recursive function in C to calculate the factorial of a positive integer.short · 5 marks
Explain dynamic memory allocation in C. Differentiate between `malloc()` and `calloc()`. Write a C program to dynamically allocate memory for N integers, sort them in ascending order, and free the memory.long · 10 marks
What is the worst-case time complexity of Quick Sort algorithm? (a) O(n) (b) O(n log n) (c) O(n^2) (d) O(log n)objective · 1 marks